How do archaeologists know where ancient artefacts came from?

In ancient Greece, people travelled to sanctuaries from far and wide to worship the gods. They would pray, sacrifice animals, and give gifts – known as votive offerings. These gifts were displayed at sanctuaries for many years, sometimes centuries. When the space became too crowded, officials would clear the offerings into special pits within the sanctuary. Archaeologists have discovered hundreds of thousands of offerings in these pits, often in very well-preserved condition.

The offerings could take any form: from everyday items, such as jewellery and tools of the trade, to specially-made figurines made of ceramic, metal and stone; from tiny precious sealstones to huge marble statues; from locally-made pottery to expensive gemstones from abroad. Each of these objects had a special meaning for the worshipper who chose and sometimes even made their own offering, then carrying and depositing it at the sanctuary. For instance, someone might have dedicated a ceramic model of their foot to Asklepios to heal a broken toe, a bronze helmet to Apollo to give thanks for success in war, or a bronze figurine of a boat to Poseidon to pray for a safe journey home by sea. This custom continues into the present day, including at Orthodox churches in Greece.

These objects tell us about the people who left them, about their hopes and desires, about how they chose to communicate with the gods, and about where they might have come from. They are one of the only remaining pieces of evidence for the religious journeys people made in the past and so are valuable clues to reconstruct human mobility — but how do we know where something came from?

There are multiple ways to approach this question, from studying their forms to analysing the materials they were made from scientifically. The most valuable studies are, of course, those that combine all aspects, providing a holistic overview and deeper understanding of what they may have represented in the past as well as providing evidence on craft production and organisation, past economies, as well as human and object mobility.

Archaeologists have long relied on detailed study and the classification of artefact forms to create ‘typologies’, which help to identify trends within groups of objects (assemblages). By matching specific shapes or decorative styles, researchers can compare groups of artefacts from various locations. This comparative analysis allows us to construct a comprehensive picture of an artefact’s origin based on its distribution and relative abundance. Typology serves as a foundational tool, enabling archaeologists to trace the geographical and cultural journey of artefacts across ancient landscapes.

Building on the insights gained from typology, archaeology today employs a range of scientific techniques to further explore the provenance and technology of ancient votive offerings. Provenance studies focus on identifying the origin of materials used to create artefacts. The raw materials, such as clay, used in ceramic production often reflect the geology of the region where they were sourced. By characterising the composition of these materials, archaeologists can 'fingerprint' artefacts and compare them with compositions from known production sites. When direct matches are not available, geological maps and the analysis of potential raw material sources provide valuable clues. The study of technology, how something was made, can further enhance our understanding of where it was made and importantly, reconstruct the choices craftspeople made in the past.

Combining these approaches allows archaeologists to investigate the intangible aspects of ancient human mobility. Understanding where and how artefacts were made provides insights into the religious journeys of the past, revealing the important relationship between people and the material world. Through these votive offerings, we can begin to comprehend the motives and movements of ancient worshippers, painting a richer picture of their spiritual lives and travels.

Carlotta Gardner is the Fitch 2024 Research and Outreach Officer at the British School at Athens. Tulsi Parikh is the A. G. Leventis Fellow in Hellenic Studies at the British School at Athens.